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SPORT IN THE ANCIENT WORLD AND OUR EUROPEAN HERITAGE Copyright © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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EARLY CULTURES Egypt
Warriors trained
Dancing was valued in religion
China
Only the military class valued physical development
India
Yoga, a system of meditation and regulated breathing
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HOMERIC ERA (prehistoric time to 776 B.C.) Homer’s Iliad—describes the funeral games in honor of Patroclus
Homer’s Odyssey—includes story of Odysseus on the island of the Phaeacians
Aristocratic sports—warrior skills displayed in sports by noblemen
Individual events only
Informal
Spontaneous
Only amateurs |
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Events
Chariot racing Boxing
Wrestling Javelin
Foot racing Discus
Development of the Greek Ideal
Man of Action—sports skills and military prowess
Man of Wisdom—development of mind and philosophical abilities
Emulated the Greek gods who were believed to have superior intellect and physical capabilities |
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SPARTAN ERA (776 B.C. to 371 B.C.) Early years they had freedoms and cultural activities
Man of Action later took over with an emphasis on military supremacy
State controlled life and education
Girls were trained at home in gymnastics—to bear healthy children
Boys
Raised at home until age seven and trained by mothers |
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Between ages 7-20 males stayed in barracks training for military; were in companies of 64 boys with one leader and later in four companies or a troop; discipline was severe
Between ages 20-30 males were in the military
At 30 years, males became citizens and married
Between ages 30-50, males trained boys in barracks
Narrow-minded society (conquering) until at one time—9,000 Spartans to 250,000 captives
In the early years, the Olympic Games were dominated by the Spartans (46 of 81 victories) |
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EARLY ATHENIAN ERA (776 B.C. to 480 B.C.) Developed into a liberal, progressive, and democratic city-state
Greek Ideal of the unity of the Man of Action and the Man of Wisdom
Athenian education
Moral (character) training at home for both girls and boys
Girls at home got no intellectual and practically no physical training |
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Boys
Raised at home until seven, but sometimes went with father to the gymnasiums
If could afford formal education
Palaestra—place for physical training, sometimes called a wrestling school (the teacher was called a paidotribe)
Didascaleum—place for intellectual training, sometimes call a music school |
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Males could become citizens at 18 years
Between ages 18-20 males were subject to military service (always had to be ready for war)
Citizens—physical work-outs and intellectual (philosophical) discussions at the state-furnished gymnasiums |
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LATE ATHENIAN ERA (480 B.C. to 404 B.C.) Military successes in the Persian Wars led to freedoms, individualism, and self-confidence
“Golden Age” (443 B.C. to 429 B.C.)—cultural explosion as Man of Wisdom was stressed and Man of Action ignored
Loss of interest in physical development
Intellectualism
Decline of Athenian military interest and involvement (no longer soldiers)
Replacement of citizens by mercenaries |
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Professionalism and specialization in athletics (citizens became spectators instead of participants); athletes sold their services to city-states
Gymnasiums became pleasure resorts and places for philosophical discussions instead of activity-filled centers; the only ones who trained physically were the professional athletes |
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HELLENISTIC PERIOD (323 B.C. to 146 B.C.) Under Alexander the Great—all Greek city-states united
Diffused Greek culture throughout his empire |
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PANHELLENIC FESTIVALS Greek Athletic (Crown) Festivals
Festival Place Honored Wreath Interval Founded
Olympic Olympia Zeus olive 4 776 B.C.
Pythian Delphi Apollo bay 4 582 B.C.
Isthmian Isthmia Poseidon pine 2 582 B.C.
Nemean Nemea Zeus wild celery 2 573 B.C. |
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IDEALS DEPICTED THROUGH GREEK ATHLETICS Appreciation of the aesthetics of beauty of movement
Beautiful body matched with beautiful deeds
Respect for courage and endurance
Reverence for the gods
Emphasized honor, modesty, and fair play
Opposed one-sided development
Love of competition—man against man for superiority, not for records |
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OLYMPIC GAMES (776 B.C. to about 400 A.D.) Held every four years in honor of Zeus and the Olympic Council of gods
Cultural interaction between city-states
Competitors and spectators (up to 40,000) were guaranteed safe passage (truce) through warring city-states
No women at Olympic Games except for those who were in charge of the sacrifices
Olive wreath for each winner
Winners received odes; cash; pensions; statues; triumphal processions at city-states
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COMPETITOR REGULATIONS Required to be Greek citizen
Could be from any social class
Required to train 10 months
Required to train the last month at Olympia under the supervision of judges
Pledged an oath of fair play
Competed in the nude |
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EVENTS Footraces—how started; turning post
Stade—the length of the stadium or about 200 meters (776 B.C.)
Diaulos—2 stades (724 B.C.)
Dolichos—24 stades (724 B.C.)
Wrestling—standing with the winner throwing his opponent to the ground twice before being thrown twice (708 B.C.) |
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PENTATHLON—All-around athlete (708 B.C.) Race of 1 or 2 stades
Javelin—8-10 feet to test both distance and form (with leather thong)
Long jump using halteres
Discus—using 1-foot diameter and 4-5 pound stone thrown from a fixed position
Wrestling—always the deciding event |
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OTHER EVENTS Boxing—with leather thongs on hands (688 B.C.)
Confined blows to the head
No weight classifications
Loser had to give up
Pancration—combination of boxing and wrestling (loser had to give up) (648 B.C.)
Chariot racing—(680 B.C.)—12 laps around 500-meter hippodrome
Races in armor (580 B.C.)
Boys’ events (632 B.C.)
Horse racing (648 B.C.)—(1-6 laps) |
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Ending the Games: “The conquest of the Greeks by the Romans had a bad influence on the Pan-Hellenic Games. Unable to value gymnastics as a means of attaining beauty, symmetry of body, grace, complete development and harmony of body and soul, the conquerors hastened the decay of the games which had already begun under the Later Greeks. Professionalism was encouraged, the more brutal and exciting sports came to be, and bribery followed. The games ceased to have any connection with general education; the moral values to be derived from friendly competitions disappeared.” |
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HERAEAN GAMES “Every fourth year there is woven for Hera a robe by the Sixteen women, and the same also hold games called Heraea. The games consist of footraces for maidens. These are not all of the same age. The first to run are the youngest; after them come the next in age, and last to run are the oldest of the maidens. They run in the following way: their hair hangs down, a tunic reaches to a little above the knee and they bare the right shoulder as far as the breast. These too have the Olympic stadium reserved for their games, but the course of the stadium is shortened for them by about one-sixth of its length. To the winning maidens they give crowns of olive and a portion of the cow sacrificed to Hera. They may also dedicate statues with their names inscribed upon them.” |
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ROMAN REPUBLIC (@500 B.C. to 27 B.C.) Freedoms for people under aristocratic oligarchy; more democratic
Moral and military training—superior to intellectual attainment
Goal was to become a citizen-soldier
Campus Martius and military camps—training for military (run; jump; swim; javelin; fencing; archery; riding; marching)
Ages 17 to 47—could be drafted for war
When not training or fighting, males and many females were spectators at festivals |
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ROMAN EMPIRE (27 B.C. to 476 A.D.) Loss of individual freedoms; lessened emphasis on military prowess; hired mercenaries after Romans had established the Empire; accompanied by a decay of morals
Games and festivals (maybe as frequently as 250 days of the year)
Staged for spectator entertainment with political overtones
Professional athletes and gladiators competed for lucrative prizes |
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ROMAN EMPIRE (27 B.C. to 476 A.D.) Chariot races -- the more brutal, the more popular (usually 7 laps for a 3-mile event); took place at the circuses (Circus Maximus—260,000 capacity)
Thermae or bathes—contrast baths with minimal exercise (except for the training of professional athletes and gladiators); cultural centers; dining areas |
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MIDDLE AGES (11th to 16th centuries, especially 1250-1350) Chivalry—moral and social code for noblemen (to serve God, lord, and lady)
Feudalism—protection and government
Manoralism—economics
Knightly training
Until 7 years—training at home
7-14 years (page)—under the lady of another castle for general training
14-21 years (squire)—under the direction of the lord of the castle for physical training
21 years—could become a knight |
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MIDDLE AGES (11th to 16th centuries especially 1250-1350) Activities of the squire
Attend his lord as a valet and bodyguard
Served his meals
Assisted him in battle
Cleaned his armor
Learned knightly arts of riding; swimming; archery; climbing; jousting; tourneying; wrestling; fencing; courtly manners
Learned responsibilities of knighthood |
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MIDDLE AGES (11th to 16th centuries especially 1250-1350) Tournaments—favorite amusements of the people
Joust—combat between two armed horsemen with blunt weapons
Grand tourney or melee—similarities to war with many men fighting with real weapons
Crusades—interrelationship between the physical and spiritual (1095-1200s) |
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RENAISSANCE (1400-1600) Artists again depicted the human body as a revelation of beauty
Health stressed to overcome epidemics
Embraced the classical ideal of “a sound mind in a sound body” |
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REFORMATION (15OOs) Protestant sects relegated physical education to an inferior position and endeavored to curb “worldly pleasures” (religious fervor)
Martin Luther and John Calvin were leaders in this movement
Exercise was okay for health—in order to serve God better
Protestant work ethic affected America |
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TIMELINE
Middle Ages Enlightenment
<-------------------------------> Reformation
<------Dark Ages------------------------------><---------------------------><-------------
476<------->1095<---------->1200s<-----------1400--------->1600<-------1700s
Crusades Renaissance |
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THE ENLIGHTENMENT (1700s) John Locke
Knightly activities for British gentlemen
"A sound mind in a sound body" in 1693 in Some Thoughts Concerning Education |
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EDUCATIONAL NATURALISM (1700s) Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Wrote Emile as a philosophical model
Stressed "everything according to nature"
Training of the body preceded formal intellectual training—best if both could develop together naturally
Stressed recreational, vigorous activity for children (natural activities)
Readiness was the key concept |
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GERMAN GYMNASTICS Johann Basedow—Philanthropinum—1774
Based on naturalistic principles from Rousseau
Program—1 hour in morning; 2 hours in afternoon; 2 hours of manual labor
Fencing; dancing; riding; vaulting—Basedow
Running; jumping; throwing; wrestling—Simon
Johann Friedrich Simon—first physical education teacher |
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GERMAN GYMNASTICS C.G. Salzmann (teacher at Philanthropinum) Schnepfenthal Institute—1785
Patterned after the Philanthropinum and naturalism
Program—daily for 3 hours
Natural activities—run; jump
Greek-type activities—wrestling; throwing
Knightly activities—swimming; climbing
Military exercises—marching; swordsmanship
Manual labor—carpentry; gardening |
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GERMAN GYMNASTICS Johann Friedrich GutsMuths—1786-1835
Gymnastics for the Young —1792—
foundation for physical education
Games—1796—105 games classified with skills |
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GERMAN GYMNASTICS Friedrich Ludwig Jahn
Physical education was a means, not an end—the hope of German freedom lay in the development of strong, sturdy, fearless youth—national regeneration
Half-holiday excursions in natural settings—based on GutMuths’ ideas
1810—Turnplatz (outdoor exercising ground) with vaulting bucks; parallel bars; climbing ladders and ropes; balance beams; running track; wrestling ring |
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GERMAN GYMNASTICS Common uniform to make all social classes equal (gray canvas smock and trousers)
Working classes and lower middle classes predominately
Initially open only in July and August; later open year round
Individualized under Jahn
Vorturners trained younger boys
1819—illegal
1840—legal
1848—illegal (underground) |
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ADOLPH SPIESS—GERMAN SCHOOL GYMNASTICS (late 1840s) Stressed the essentially of physical education within education
Exercise hall required
Trained instructors—established a normal school to train them
One class period per day
Grades given—physical education was equal to other subjects
Adapted to age levels
For both boys and girls |
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ADOLPH SPIESS—FOUNDER OF GERMAN SCHOOL GYMNASTICS (late 1840s) Program
Free exercise with music
Marching with music and stressed discipline
Little formalism in sports, games, and dancing
Manual of gymnastics for schools |
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SWEDISH GYMNASTICS Per Henrik Ling—founder of Swedish gymnastics
Four areas of gymnastics
Military—national preparedness
Medical—therapeutic healing
Pedagogical—educational (methodology stressed)
Aesthetics—expression of feelings
1814—Royal Gymnastics Central Institute
Established by the government for military purposes with Ling as director |
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SWEDISH GYMNASTICS Program—used to achieve an already established objective
Posture correcting—rigidly held positions
Movement on command into positions (no freedom of movement)
Apparatus—stall bars; vaulting boxes; climbing poles and ropes; oblique ropes; Swedish boom |
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SWEDISH GYMNASTICS Hjalmar Ling—Director of the educational segment of the RGCI in 1840s
Developed Swedish school gymnastics—based on Per Henrik Ling's principles
Program
Day's order—progressive, precise execution of movements on command (for 11 body parts)
Adapted to age and ability levels
Adapted to both sexes
Adapted apparatus to children |
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DANISH GYMNASTICS —FRANZ NACHTEGALL 1799—Established his private gymnasium based on the ideas of GutsMuths
1804—Director of the Military Gymnastic Institute—government financed and the first normal school for physical education
Danish gymnastics—required in the schools in the 1820s
Program
Danish gymnastics—based on ideas from Germany, Sweden, and England
For boys and girls—in the schools |
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DANISH GYMNASTICS—FRANZ NACHTEGALL Formalized exercise on command with no individual expression allowed
Theme—nationalism
1809—Gymnastics in secondary schools
1814—Required for elementary boys
1828—Required for all boys (girls in the 1900s)
Equipment—rope ladders; climbing masts and poles; balance beams; vaulting horse (like GutsMuths) |
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ENGLISH SPORTS English sports movement in the public schools—for upper-class boys
Students worked toward (and were) the highest ideal of British sportsmanship
Influenced amateur sport worldwide and especially in America
The best sportsman makes the best citizen |
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ENGLISH SPORTS Sports
Rugby
Association football
Cricket
Track and field
Rowing
Muscular Christianity—teaching values through sports
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ATTITUDES TOWARD SPORTS HELD BY STUDENTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS A "public-school" type boy was more a product of sports and games than of books and scholastic training
Physical fitness was not valued; instead, if one engages in sports, he will be fit; sports are just a part of life
Sports were played by those less specialized, therefore, the level of expertise will be lower
Skills are seldom practiced because sports skills will be learned by playing |
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ATTITUDES TOWARD SPORTS HELD BY STUDENTS IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS Sports were mostly played between the houses with few spectators, although sometimes interschool matches were held
Masters, out of school loyalty, acted as coaches
Belief in playing the game for the game's sake—trying to do one's best
Believed to teach socialization skills, leadership, loyalty, cooperation, sportsmanship, self-discipline, and initiative |
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ENGLISH SPORTS IN THE UNIVERSITIES Believed in informal, casual, and non-intense sports involvement—playing at their games
Usually students played several sports (exception was rowing)
No paid coaches—had undergraduate captains
No faculty involvement and support
Purchased own equipment; paid own travel
Football and hockey paid for the upkeep of fields for other sports
Winning the “blue” was very prestigious (Oxford-dark blue and Cambridge-light blue) |
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BRITISH AMATEUR SPORTS IDEAL Sports for sports’ sake—impeded commercialism
Upper-class snobbishness toward competing against those who might violate the amateur tradition
No one could do his best in academics without the qualities of mind and social interaction coming from sports |
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“Since games are regarded in Great Britain as essentially play rather than work, the line between the amateur, the man who plays at his games, and the professional, the man who works at sport for financial profit, is strictly drawn in most branches of athletics, nominally drawn in all. The whole force of public-school and university opinion tends to keep this distinction constantly charged with meaning. Very few people depend upon school, college, or university sport for their livelihood, and those who are thus dependent are regarded not as leaders, but as employees. No person depends upon victory for his living. These facts, supplementing the traditions of the public schools, stimulate a conscious effort to prevent the commercialization of school and university sport and of amateur sport in general. Thus, the phrases, ‘play the game’ and ‘to play the game for the game’s sake,’ transcend the usual emptiness of such slogans, gather an almost mystical significance, and become the rallying cries of British sportsmen.” |
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